Leukaemia

What is chronic leukaemia?Leukaemia literally means ‘many white cells in the blood'. The white cells are part of the body’s immune system, and there are several sub-groups of white cells that have different sorts of roles in recognising and dealing with ‘invaders’ such as bacteria and viruses as well as other types of foreign protein. All of the blood cells originate in the bone marrow and leukaemia (blood cancer) is a disease where the bone marrow produces large numbers of abnormal white cells. This means that the normal marrow is pushed into smaller and smaller areas. This results in fewer normal cells being produced and gives rise to some of the symptoms.There are many types of leukaemia, each of which is classified according to the exact cell type affected by the disease.Chronic leukaemia is a slowly progressive form of leukaemia and tends to involve more mature cell types. It may not need treatment immediately, but if treatment is required it is usually chemotherapy, given in the form of tablets.The cause of leukaemia is not known.What are the symptoms of chronic leukaemia?It is possible to have chronic leukaemia for months or even years without knowing it.The symptoms are varied, but many people notice:
tiredness (due to anaemia)
bruising easily (often without having had any blow or fall)
repeated infections
enlarged lymph glands
weight loss
night sweats
fever.
What is chronic lymphocytic leukaemia?Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is the commonest type of leukaemia with 3000 to 4000 new cases diagnosed each year in the UK. It is a form of chronic leukaemia characterised by an increased number of lymphocytes, which make up one of the main sub-groups of white cells in the blood. Despite their increased numbers these lymphocytes lack the normal ability of responding to infection by the production of antibodies, so compromising the immune system of the affected person.CLL is rarely found in people under the age of 40 - the peak age is 65. It is twice as common in men than in women. There are no obvious causes known for CLL.What are the symptoms of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia?In addition to the symptoms mentioned above which are common to all forms of leukaemia, specific signs of the disease are:
painless enlargement of the lymph glands especially in the neck, armpits and groin.
lymph glands in deeper parts of the body may need special scans for diagnosis.
sometimes an enlarged spleen (located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen) may cause discomfort or pain.
How is chronic lymphocytic leukaemia diagnosed?Often the condition is diagnosed by chance when blood tests are being performed for other reasons.Although a blood test may give doctors the diagnosis, a bone marrow test is usually done to confirm the diagnosis. Special tests are performed on these samples to help classify the leukaemia as this will influence the kind of treatment required.Scans and X-rays may also be performed in order to help doctors decide on the best treatment.How is chronic lymphocytic leukaemia treated?Treatment is not always required and the patient may just be followed up as an outpatient on a regular basis, sometimes for many years, with no need for further action. Older people with early stage CLL have a normal life expectancy. Treatment in the form of chemotherapy will be required for those who are unwell or who have many enlarged lymph glands, or who become significantly anaemic.Chemotherapy is usually given in the form of tablets (usually a medicine called chlorambucil (Leukeran)). Other chemotherapy drugs such as fludarabine (Fludara) (may be used in late stage disease. General bone marrow production of blood cells can occur in more advanced CLL (bone marrow failure) in which steroid treatment with prednisolone (eg Deltacortril) usually allows the bone marrow to recover. Milder degrees of bone marrow failure might adequately be controlled by periodic blood transfusion.X-ray treatment (radiotherapy) can be given locally, to swollen lymph nodes, or in small repeated doses to the whole body. Infections are more common in people with CLL and need to be diagnosed early and treated vigorously. Sometimes the spleen, which is also part of the body’s immune system swells up so much in CLL that it gives rise to pain, or it causes a type of anaemia to develop in which the red cells of the blood (oxygen-carrying cells) become fragile, leading to further anaemia. These problems may justify the surgical removal of the spleen.Bone marrow transplantation may be considered for those patients who are less than 45 years of age and who have an aggressive form of the disease.

asbestosis

What is asbestosis?
Asbestosis is a process of lung tissue scarring caused by asbestos fibers. Because many other diseases also lead to lung scarring, other causes must be excluded first when a patient is found to have lung scarring (pulmonary fibrosis). Patients with particular x-ray findings or biopsy results must also have a remote history of asbestos exposure and a characteristically delayed development of the condition in considering asbestosis as a diagnosis. Smoking appears to increase the frequency and/or the rate of progression of asbestosis, possibly by preventing the efficient elimination of inhaled fibers from the airways.
What are symptoms and signs of asbestosis?
The clinical symptoms usually include slowly progressing shortness of breath and cough, often 20 to 40 years after exposure to asbestos. Breathlessness advances throughout the disease, even without further asbestos inhalation. In the absence of cigarette smoking, sputum (mucus coughed up from the lungs) production and wheezing are uncommon. The exception is workers who have been exposed to very high concentrations of asbestos fibers. Those workers may also develop symptoms as soon as 10 years after exposure. Other indications of asbestosis include abnormal lung sounds on examination, changes in the ends of the fingers and toes ("clubbing"), a blue tinge to the fingers or lips ("cyanosis"), and failure of the right side of the heart ("cor pulmonale").
What tests and studies are used to evaluate asbestosis?
Breathing abnormalities can be identified with lung function tests (pulmonary function tests or PFTs) or exercise tests that are performed at specialized laboratories. Asbestosis can produce both obstruction of airflow and restriction of lung inflation. In addition, the disease can affect the ability to transfer oxygen into the blood. With advanced disease, patients may have markedly reduced blood oxygen at rest and may need supplementary oxygen.
X-ray abnormalities include thickening of the lining of the lungs and tiny lines marking the lower portions of the lungs. However, up to 20% of patients have completely normal-appearing chest x-rays. These patients may demonstrate more subtle changes on computerized x-ray studies (computerized tomography, or CT scans). Up to 30% of patients with a normal chest x-ray who have been exposed to asbestos will have an abnormal high resolution (high definition) CT. The CT scan may be very useful in separating true asbestosis from other conditions that may have similar findings. However, even a CT scan may not identify disease of the lining of the lung (pleural disease) in patients with asbestosis. The proper role of CT scanning has not been fully established.
Laboratory studies may be abnormal (certain antibodies and markers of inflammation), but they do not specifically suggest asbestosis.
Occasionally, a biopsy and microscopic examination of the lung is used to diagnose asbestosis. Under microscopic examination, certain coated fibers (asbestos bodies) can be seen in association with a pattern of scarring. The amount of both coated and uncoated (transparent) asbestos has been linked to the severity of asbestosis. Because other particles may resemble asbestos, a conclusive identification may require scanning electron microscopy. Currently, detection of asbestos fibers in the lung tissue and fluids (sputum, secretions) can be used to make the diagnosis, along with a history of asbestos exposure and characteristic x-ray or CT results.
The currently available commercial form of asbestos, chrysotile, does not form asbestos bodies as easily as previously used fibers.
Asbestos Cancer - Overview
Over the course of the past century, millions of innocent people have been exposed to asbestos, a class of fibrous minerals known to cause a variety of cancers. Often referred to as "asbestos cancer," mesothelioma is the most common form of cancer caused by asbestos exposure. Other deadly forms of cancer are also caused by exposure to asbestos, such as lung cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, and colorectal cancer, just to name a few.
For many decades asbestos was considered an acceptable source of insulation, and thousands of materials made from asbestos were widely applied in industrial and domestic settings. Asbestos was found in countless products on the commercial market, in many factories, homes and public structures, and in a myriad of industries, such as railway production, shipbuilding, and energy production. For information about at-risk workplaces and products, please see Occupations at Risk for Asbestos Exposure and Products Containing Asbestos.
Of the millions of people who have been exposed to asbestos in the United States alone, thousands have developed life-threatening illnesses, many of which are aggressive cancers. Each year, approximately 10,000 Americans die from diseases caused by exposure to asbestos.

Asbestos: A natural material made up of tiny fibers which can lodge in the lungs and lead to cancer or scarring of the lungs. The cancer may be lung cancer or (mesothelioma), which is a cancer of the lining of the lungs or other internal organs. The scarring of the lungs is termed asbestosis. Exposure to asbestos usually occurs by breathing contaminated air in workplaces that make or use asbestos or in the air of buildings containing asbestos that are being torn down or renovated.
Asbestos is one of the health hazards of mining. To take a case in point, the small town of Libby, Montana was home through most of the 20th century to one of the world's largest vermiculite mines. Vermiculite, a mineral, is used in everything from insulation to animal feed to potting soil. But Libby's rich vermiculite deposit was laced with asbestos. Hundreds of miners and their families fell sick or died as a result of their exposure to the asbestos.
The following additional information is based on materials from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, a part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (the CDC).
Asbestos is a group of six different fibrous minerals: The six minerals are amosite, chrysotile, crocidolite, and the fibrous varieties of tremolite, actinolite, and anthophyllite. They occur naturally in soil and rocks in some areas. Asbestos fibers vary in length and may be straight or curled. The fibers are resistant to heat and most chemicals.
Asbestos is used for a wide range of manufactured goods, mostly roofing shingles, ceiling and floor tiles, paper products, asbestos cement products, friction products (automobile clutch, brake, and transmission parts), textiles, packaging, gaskets, and coatings.
Asbestos mainly affects the lungs: Changes in the membrane surrounding the lung are common in workers exposed to asbestos. These lung changes are also sometimes found in people living in areas with high levels of asbestos in the air. Breathing very high levels of asbestos may result in a slow buildup of scar-like tissue in the lungs and in the membrane that surrounds the lungs. People with asbestosis have shortness of breath, often along with a cough and sometimes heart enlargement. This is chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD), a serious disease that can lead to disability or death.
Asbestos is a known carcinogen: There are two types of cancer caused by exposure to high levels of asbestos: cancer of the lung tissue itself and mesothelioma, a cancer of the membrane that surrounds the lung and other internal organs. Both of these are usually fatal. These diseases do not develop immediately, but show up only after many years.
Interactions between cigarette smoke and asbestos increase the chances of getting lung cancer. Studies of workers suggest that breathing asbestos can increase the chances of getting cancer in other parts of the body (stomach, intestines, esophagus, pancreas, kidneys), but this is not certain.
People who are exposed to lower levels of asbestos may also have an increased risk of developing cancer, but the risks are usually small and are difficult to measure.
It is not known whether ingesting (swallowing) asbestos causes cancer. Some people who had been exposed to asbestos fibers in their drinking water had higher-than-average death rates from cancer of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines. However, it isn't known whether this was caused by asbestos or by something else.
Medical tests: Chest X-rays cannot detect asbestos fibers, but can detect early signs of lung disease caused by asbestos. Other tests (lung and CAT scans), are also useful in detecting changes in the lungs.
Tests exist to measure asbestos fibers in urine, feces, mucus, or material rinsed out of the lung. However, low levels of asbestos fibers are found in these body fluids in nearly all people, so higher-than-average levels can only show that a person has been exposed to asbestos, not whether the person will experience ill health effects.
Regulations: In 1989, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) banned all new uses of asbestos; uses established before this date are still allowed. The EPA has established regulations that require school systems to inspect for damaged asbestos and to eliminate or reduce the exposure by removing the asbestos or by covering it up. The EPA has set a limit of 7 million fibers per liter (MFL) as the concentration of long asbestos fibers that may be present in drinking water.

Skin Cancer

Types of Skin Cancer

{i}What are the different types of skin cancer and what are their symptoms?
A. Skin cancer is one of the most preventable types of cancer. Excessive exposure to the sun's UV rays are the most common cause of the disease. In fact over 1,000,000 people are affected each year.Skin cancer can be dvided into three different types of cancer.Squamous Cell CarcinomaThese carcinomas are found usually in places on the body that have been exposed to the sun, like ears, the face and the mouth.Symptoms include a bump that turns in to an open sore (ulceration, reddish, flat spot that is sometimes crusty, a bump that gets larger and a sore that won't heal.Left untreated, it can spread quickly to other parts of the body, like the lymphatic system, bloodstream, and nerve routes.Basal Cell CarcinomaAccounting for more than 75% of skin cancers diagnosed, basal cell carcinoma is the most commonly developed skin cancer.These carcinomas are most commonly found on the face, neck, and hands.
It is considered highly treatable and rarely spreads to other parts of the body. Symptoms include a sore that oozes or bleeds, a redness area that is irritated, a yellow or white area that resembles a scar, and a pink pearly bump.MelanomaMelanoma is the most dangerous and deadly type of skin cancer.It can develop on any part of the body, however the arms, legs and trunk are the most common area of the body. When detected early, it is considered highly treatable.Symptoms include a mole, freckle, or new/existing spot that changes color in size, shape, and color. It may have an irregular outline and possible be more than one color.Your best defense in preventing skin cancer is to avoid excessive exposure to the sun. When you are outdoors, be sure to always wear a sunscreen, and stay in a shady area if possible!

Bladder Cancer

Bladder Cancer Symptoms You Need to Know
Bladder Cancer Symptoms
Bladder cancer is common disease in the United States. Research tells us that it occurs mainly in industrialized countries, such as the US, France, and Canada.Bladder cancer symptoms are few, yet very noticeable. Bladder cancer symptoms include:
· Blood in the urine: The presence of blood in urine, is called hematuria. Blood can either be seen by the eye, in which it is called gross hematuria. Blood can also be seen under a microscope, and it is then called microscopic hematuria.
· Pain during urination: Pain during urination is called dysuria. Pain can range from mild to severe.
· Frequent urination: Having to urinate often and during the night is also a symptom.

Stomach Cancer

Stomach Cancer Symptoms


About Stomach Cancer Symptoms: Many times, stomach cancer does not present any symptoms in the early stages. It is so important to talk about any symptoms or discomforts you are experiencing early on. These symptoms of stomach cancer are also symptoms of many other illnesses.
Blood in the stool: Seeing blood in the stools is a symptom of stomach cancer. Sometimes, you cannot always see blood in the stools, as it is within them. Blood can also be detected with a stool sample.
Losing weight without trying: If you have experienced a weight loss and haven't been try to lose weight, you really should get checked out by a doctor. Unintended weight loss can mean many things, and are not always indicative of cancer.

Nausea and/or vomitting: Feeling nauseous and vomiting that lasts more than a day or two is a symptom of stomach cancer, also. Persistent stomach upset is not only uncomfortable, but harsh on the stomach and esophagus.
Loss of appetite: Not feeling like eating for a day or two can be okay, but anything longer should be reported to your doctor.
Do you bloat, especially after eating?: This is one of the more common symptoms of stomach cancer. If you are bloated a lot, try to take notice if it occurs after eating. Keep in mind, that bloating in general is also a symptom.
Abdominal pains and discomfort: This can range from mild discomfort to severe pain. This is the symptom of stomach cancer that usually prompts people to get care.
Changes in bowel habits: Diarrhea and/ or constipation can be symptoms of stomach cancer. If ignored, both can lead to other medical problems.

Kidney Cancer

What are the symptoms of kidney cancer?
Kidney Cancer Symptoms
There are many variations of kidney cancer. The most commonly diagnosed type of kidney cancer is renal cell carcinoma. It accounts for more than 85% of kidney cancer diagnosis'.The most commonly experienced kidney cancer symptoms (renal cell carcinoma) are:
· Chronic fatigue
· Unexplained, rapid weightloss
· Leg and ankle swelling
· Hypertension (high blood pressure)
· Fever
· Presence of blood in urine (seen either by the eye, or microscopically)
· Pain in side or lower back
· Mass or lump in the abdomen
Keep in mind that these symptoms are also the signs for many other illnesses. Please see a health care professional if you are experiencing anything abnormal for further diagnosis.

Larynx Cancer

Signs and Symptoms
The symptoms of cancer of the larynx depend mainly on the size and location of the tumor. Most cancers of the larynx begin on the vocal cords. These tumors are seldom painful, but they almost always cause hoarseness or other changes in the voice. Tumors in the area above the vocal cords may cause a lump on the neck, a sore throat or an earache. Tumors that begin in the area below the vocal cords are rare and can make it hard to breathe. Your breathing may become noisy. A cough that doesn't go away or the feeling of a lump in the throat may also be warning signs of cancer of the larynx. As the tumor grows, it may cause pain, weight loss, bad breath, and choking on food. In some cases, a tumor in the larynx can make it hard to swallow.

thyroid cancer

Definition of thyroid cancer: Cancer that forms in the thyroid gland (an organ at the base of the throat that makes hormones that help control heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and weight). Four main types of thyroid cancer are papillary, follicular, medullary, and anaplastic thyroid cancer. The four types are based on how the cancer cells look under a microscope

Signs and Symptoms
Thyroid cancer is more common among women than men and accounts for only 1 percent of all cancers diagnosed in the United States. Most thyroid cancers grow slowly but certain types can be aggressive.
There are four major types of thyroid gland cancer -- anaplastic, follicular, medullary and papillary. These types of thyroid cancer look differently under a microscope and generally grow at varying rates.
· Anaplastic cancer: Anaplastic cancer is the fastest growing type of thyroid cancer. The cancer cells are extremely abnormal and spread rapidly to other parts of the body. Anaplastic cancers make up only about 2 percent of all thyroid cancers and are generally difficult to cure.
· Follicular cancer: This type of cancer also develops in thyroid cells that produce iodine-containing hormones. Most follicular cancers can be cured. About 10 percent to 30 percent of thyroid cancers are follicular cancers. These cancers are well differentiated, meaning slow growing and contain cells that are similar to healthy thyroid cells.
· Medullary cancer: Medullary cancer is more difficult to control than papillary and follicular thyroid cancer. The cells involved in medullary cancers produce calcitonin, a hormone that does not contain iodine. About 5 to 7 percent of all thyroid cancers are medullary cancers. Of the four types of thyroid cancer, only medullary thyroid cancer can be inherited, which is caused by an alteration in the RET gene. Individuals who inherit this alteration are almost certain to develop medullary thyroid cancer at some time in their lives.
· Papillary cancer: This type of thyroid cancer develops in cells that produce thyroid hormones containing iodine. Papillary cancer is well-differentiated, meaning that it grows very slowly and contains cells that are similar to healthy thyroid cells. Doctors usually can treat these cancers successfully, even when cancer cells have spread to nearby lymph nodes. Papillary cancers account for about 60 percent to 80 percent of all thyroid cancers and have a favorable prognosis.
The most common symptom of thyroid cancer is a lump, or nodule, that can be felt in the thyroid gland or neck. Other symptoms are rare. Pain is seldom an early warning sign of thyroid cancer. You may have a tight or full feeling in the neck, difficulty breathing or swallowing, hoarseness or swollen lymph nodes.
Throat Cancers
Signs and Symptoms
Cancers that involve the throat, base of the tongue, tonsil, pharynx, or tube that extends from the nasal passages to the mouth to the esophagus and sinus are called oropharyngeal and hypopharyngeal cancers.
Symptoms of throat cancer may include:
§ A sore throat that does not go away
§ Cough
§ Pain or difficulty swallowing
§ Weight loss for no known reason
§ Ear pain
§ A lump in the back of the mouth, throat or neck
§ Advanced tumors may invade the voice box, causing hoarseness or breathing difficulty
§ Bleeding from the throat or blood-tinged sputum
Risk factors for developing throat cancer may include:
§ Smoking tobacco
§ Heavy alcohol use
§ A diet low in fruits and vegetables
§ Drinking maté, a stimulant drink common in South America
§ Chewing betel quid, a stimulant commonly used in parts of Asia
§ Being infected with human papillomavirus (HPV)

Pancreatic Cancer

Signs and Symptoms of Pancreatic Cancer
Pancreatic Cancer Symptoms
Many times there is a delay in diagnosing pancreatic cancer because the symptoms are also associated with many other illnesses. The symptoms experienced do not specify or exactly indicate the disease. Soem doctors may feel the symptoms are caused by other illnesses.It is known that at least 50% of pancreatic cancer patients experience jaundice, a yellowing of the skin. Pancreatic cancer symptoms also experienced include:
· Weight loss
· Glucose intolerance
· Fatigue
· Abdominal discomfort or pain
When the pancreas produce too much insulin, other symptoms such as chills, diarrhea, general feeling of weakness, and muscle spasms may be experienced.Keep in mind that these pancreatic cancer symptoms are also specific to many other illnesses.

Penile Cancer

Causes and Risk Factors of Penile Cancer
Men who are circumcised at birth, a common practice in the U.S., almost never get penile cancer. If circumcision is performed at puberty, the incidence of cancer is slightly higher, and men who are circumcised as adults experience the same incidence of penile cancer as men who are never circumcised at all.
Cancer of the penis is, in a sense, a disease of poor hygiene. It is believed that the decaying cells of the undersurface of the foreskin (smegma) produce irritation leading to cancer.
In addition, there may be a relationship between venereal warts (condyloma acuminata) and penile cancer.
Recent studies have shown an association between certain types of the virus that causes condylomata (human papilloma virus types 16 and 18) and penile cancer in about one man in three who have penile cancer. These human papilloma virus (HPV) types are also found in women who have cancer in the uterine cervix.
It also has been shown that cancer of the uterine cervix may be higher in the sexual partners of men who are not circumcised.
Symptoms of Penile Cancer
Penile cancer typically begins as a raised lump or lesion on the penis. It can begin more as an area of unexplained change in the color of the skin.
Diagnosis of Penile Cancer
Like most cancers, this is diagnosed by means of a biopsy.
Treatment of Penile Cancer
Treatment is determined by the tumor size and staging. If the tumor is small and local, it can be treated surgically, chemically, or with radiation or laser without major damage to the appearance or function of the penis.
If it has penetrated the deeper penile tissues or is large, surgery is the preferred treatment for most men. Radiation is an option but results are less certain.
If the tumor has spread to lymph nodes, surgery or radiation is used. Chemotherapy is of little value in extensive carcinoma of the penis.

Penile Cancer

Causes and Risk Factors of Penile Cancer
Men who are circumcised at birth, a common practice in the U.S., almost never get penile cancer. If circumcision is performed at puberty, the incidence of cancer is slightly higher, and men who are circumcised as adults experience the same incidence of penile cancer as men who are never circumcised at all.
Cancer of the penis is, in a sense, a disease of poor hygiene. It is believed that the decaying cells of the undersurface of the foreskin (smegma) produce irritation leading to cancer.
In addition, there may be a relationship between venereal warts (condyloma acuminata) and penile cancer.
Recent studies have shown an association between certain types of the virus that causes condylomata (human papilloma virus types 16 and 18) and penile cancer in about one man in three who have penile cancer. These human papilloma virus (HPV) types are also found in women who have cancer in the uterine cervix.
It also has been shown that cancer of the uterine cervix may be higher in the sexual partners of men who are not circumcised.
Symptoms of Penile Cancer
Penile cancer typically begins as a raised lump or lesion on the penis. It can begin more as an area of unexplained change in the color of the skin.
Diagnosis of Penile Cancer
Like most cancers, this is diagnosed by means of a biopsy.
Treatment of Penile Cancer
Treatment is determined by the tumor size and staging. If the tumor is small and local, it can be treated surgically, chemically, or with radiation or laser without major damage to the appearance or function of the penis.
If it has penetrated the deeper penile tissues or is large, surgery is the preferred treatment for most men. Radiation is an option but results are less certain.
If the tumor has spread to lymph nodes, surgery or radiation is used. Chemotherapy is of little value in extensive carcinoma of the penis.

vaginal cancer

What are symptoms and signs of vaginal cancer?
Possible signs of vaginal cancer include pain or abnormal vaginal bleeding.
Vaginal cancer often does not cause early symptoms and may be found during a routine Pap test. When symptoms occur they may be caused by vaginal cancer or by other conditions. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
Bleeding or discharge not related to menstrual periods.
Pain during sexual intercourse.
Pain in the pelvic area.
A lump in the vagina.
What tests are used to diagnose vaginal cancer?
Tests that examine the vagina and other organs in the pelvis are used to detect (find) and diagnose vaginal cancer.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient's health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Pelvic exam: An exam of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts one or two lubricated, gloved fingers of one hand into the vagina and places the other hand over the lower abdomen to feel the size, shape, and position of the uterus and ovaries. A speculum is also inserted into the vagina and the doctor or nurse looks at the vagina and cervix for signs of disease. A Pap test or Pap smear of the cervix is usually done. The doctor or nurse also inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel for lumps or abnormal areas.
Pap smear: A procedure to collect cells from the surface of the cervix and vagina. A piece of cotton, a brush, or a small wooden stick is used to gently scrape cells from the cervix and vagina. The cells are viewed under a microscope to find out if they are abnormal. This procedure is also called a Pap test.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues from the vagina and cervix so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. If a Pap smear shows abnormal cells in the vagina, a biopsy may be done during a colposcopy.
Colposcopy: A procedure in which a colposcope (a lighted, magnifying instrument) is used to check the vagina and cervix for abnormal areas. Tissue samples may be taken using a curette (spoon-shaped
Signs and Symptoms
Vaginal cancer is a rare disease and makes up less than 3 percent of all gynecological cancers. There are four different types of vaginal cancer, including:
§ Squamous Cell Cancer: The most common type and usually occurs in the upper part of the vagina. It typically affects women between the ages of 50 and 70.
§ Adenocarcinoma: The second most common type and usually affects women between the ages of 12 and 30, although it occassionally occurs in women of all age groups.
§ Malignant Melanomas Sarcomas: Extremely rare forms of the disease.
It is important to know that even if you have had a hysterectomy, you can still develop vaginal cancer.
Risk Factors
As with many cancers, the exact cause of vaginal cancer is not known for sure. However, some factors may increase a woman's risk for the disease, including:
§ Smoking
§ Age, women over the age of 50 are most commonly affected by squamous cell vaginal cancer
§ History of cervical cancer
§ Having had a hysterectomy
§ History of genital warts caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV)
§ Having had radiation therapy to the pelvic area
In addition, research has shown that young women whose mothers took a drug known as diethylstilbestrol (DES) are at a higher risk for developing the disease. The drug DES was given to pregnant women between 1945 and 1970 to prevent them from having miscarriages.
In some cases, vaginal cancer may not cause any symptoms and is detected by an abnormal Pap smear. However, some common symptoms of the condition include:
§ Bleeding or discharge not related to menstrual periods
§ Difficult or painful urination
§ Pain during intercourse or in the pelvic area

colon cancer

What are the symptoms of colon cancer?
Symptoms of colon cancer are numerous and nonspecific. They include fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, change in bowel habits, narrow stools, diarrhea or constipation, red or dark blood in stool, weight loss, abdominal pain, cramps, or bloating. Other conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome (spastic colon), ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, diverticulosis, and peptic ulcer disease can have symptoms that mimic colorectal cancer. For more information on these conditions, please read the following articles: Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Ulcerative Colitis, Crohn's Disease, Diverticulosis, and Peptic Ulcer Disease.
Colon cancer can be present for several years before symptoms develop. Symptoms vary according to where in the large bowel the tumor is located. The right colon is spacious, and cancers of the right colon can grow to large sizes before they cause any abdominal symptoms. Typically, right-sided cancers cause iron deficiency anemia due to the slow loss of blood over a long period of time. Iron deficiency anemia causes fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath. The left colon is narrower than the right colon. Therefore, cancers of the left colon are more likely to cause partial or complete bowel obstruction. Cancers causing partial bowel obstruction can cause symptoms of constipation, narrowed stool, diarrhea, abdominal pains, cramps, and bloating. Bright red blood in the stool may also indicate a growth near the end of the left colon or rectum

Anal Cancer symptoms

Common symptoms of anal cancer include:
· Changes in bowel habits
· A lump located near the anus
· Anal or rectal bleeding
· Anal discharge, or itching
· Pain in or around the anus
Please note that these ailments are also symptoms of other illnesses. It is important to report any changes or general concerns to your physician for further examination.

cancer symptoms

Signs and Symptoms of Breast Cancer
Breast cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the breast. It is estimated 1 in every 7 American women will develop breast cancer in their lifetime. 220,000 American women will develop breast cancer this year.Symptoms of breast cancer include:
· Discharge from the nipple(clear or bloody)
· Persistent tenderness of the breast
· pain in the nipple
· swelling or mass in the armpit (lymph nose)
· inverted or scaly nipples
· a lump that can be felt no matter how small
· swelling of the breast
Sometimes there are no symptoms of breast cancer when its in the early stages. If you notice a lump, or are experiencing anything unusual, you must report them to your doctor as soon as possible.

Male Breast Cancer Symptoms

Signs and Symptoms to Watch Out For
Contrary to popular belief, men do get breast cancer. Male breast cancer affects more than 1600 men each year in the United States. Male breast cancer symptoms include:
· Nipple discharge
· Lump, mass or swelling in the breast, nipple or chest wall
· Inversion of the nipple)the nipple has turned inward)
· Nipple or skin of the breast has a red appearance or is very dry and scaly
· skin dimpling or puckering

When a lump is found, most of the time it is a benign condition called gynecomastia. However, ALL lumps and abnormalities need to be examined by a physician. Nipple discharge and a lump are the most common symptoms detected by a patient before diagnosis. If you are experiencing any symptom, report it to your doctor.